Table of Contents

Definition of...

Figure of Speech = When the meaning of the words have a "deep" meaning, which is different from the "surface" meaning.

Apostrophe = speaking to an inanimate object, or to a person who is absent

          Example:  Oh, Rain, how long will you fall upon me?

Hyperbole = exaggeration to effect an emotional response

          Example:  It'll take me a million years to fix this problem.

Metaphor =  one thing is equated with another (not related, but have some common ground; that common ground is supposed to give understanding)

          For Example:  click here

Personification = an inanimate object or animal is given human qualities

          Example:  The night embraced me and the moon smiled down upon me.

Metonymy = one thing used to refer to another (related and used for reference, not understanding)

          For Example:  click here

Synecdoche = part represents the whole (a kind of metonymy)

          Example:  God bless the hands which prepared this food.

            The hands (part) refers to the person (whole) which owns the hands. 

Oxymoron = two contradictory words used together

          Example:  Childhood is so bittersweet.

          Example:  Time can pass so slowly or so quickly.

          Example:  I am an idiotic genius.

Simile = two things shown to be similar in some way

         Example:  As sly as a fox

         Example:  As wise as an owl

         Example:  Eat like a bird (eat very little)

[Please visit my Simile Page]    [Go to Leon's Front Page]

Metaphors

A metaphor is generally supposed to be one thing equated with another thing, such as:

"a" is "b".

Where "a" is something and "b" is some non-related thing, but...

there must a common ground between "a" and "b".

For example, in English, a common metaphor is:

John is a teddy bear.

In that example:

However,

Many metaphors are "hidden".

For example:

I made up my mind to do something.

Therein above, the metaphor is "hidden" from view.

The actual metaphor is:  my mind is material/matter that can be composed.

Tenor = mind
Vehicle = material/matter that can be composed
Common Ground = both are changeable; both are able to be manipulated

The phrase: "make up", is a two-part verb.

The whole expression:  "make up one's mind", is considered a metaphor, but not in the traditional sense.

How do I mean?

Well, the word "mind", alone, does not function as a metaphor.  It is the collocating verb, "make up" which makes it function as a metaphor.  Thus, it could be called a "metaphorical expression", even though the actual metaphor is "hidden" from view.

Let me give you some more examples, 'cause I realize that perhaps one is not enough for all persons to "grasp" the concept.  Hey!  There's a metaphorical expression:  "Grasp a concept."  Wow!  Metaphors are so common, aren't they?!

Let's look at that one:  "Grasp a concept", because there are two ways of looking at it.  What we really mean, of course, is "Understand a concept", because we cannot actually "grasp" a concept, because a concept is intangible (untouchable).  So, there are TWO metaphors hidden from view.

First metaphor:  the mind is something that has appendages (such as hands) that can grasp
Tenor = mind
Vehicle = something that has grasping appendages
Common Ground = both can attain things

Second metaphor:  a concept is a tangible object
Tenor = concept
Vehicle = a tangible object
Common Ground = both can be attained

You might not believe this but Lakoff and Johnson, (1980), in their ground-breaking (wow! another metaphor) book, Metaphors We Live By, estimate that 70% of our spoken language (in English, of course) is metaphorical in nature.  If you would like to do more research on metaphors, I would highly recommend Metaphors We Live By.  It is a classic.

Links:　

[MORE about metaphors]    [metaphors around the world]    [back to top]    [to Leon's Front Page]

Metonymy

A metonymy is similar to a metaphor, but different in function.

The function of a metaphor is understanding via comparison.

  The function of a metonymy is simply reference, no more.

Examples:

Metonymy Type 1:  Part refers to whole (Also Known As: Synecdoche)

There are two mouths to feed in my family.

[mouth refers to person]

God bless the hands that prepared this food.

[hand refers to person]

I count twenty heads at the party.

[head refers to person]

Metonymy Type 2:  Producer refers to product:

Our company just bought a new Xerox machine.

[Xerox is the name of a company that produces copy machines;  Xerox machine refers to copy machine]

Metonymy Type 3:  Object refers to user:

The crown ordered all soldiers to arms.

[crown refers to king]

The pen is mightier than the sword.

[pen refers to writer; sword refers to fighter]

Metonymy Type 4:  Controller refers to controlled person/thing:

Usama bin Laden (UBL) attacked the World Trade Center in New York.

[UBL refers to AlQaida forces]

Bill Gates is the king of operating systems worldwide

[Bill Gates refers to Microsoft]

Metonymy Type 5:  Institution refers to person(s) in charge:

The Pentagon announced it's new policy yesterday.

[Pentagon refers to chiefs of staff at the Pentagon]

The White House called a press conference.

[White House refers to chiefs of staff at the White House]

Metonymy Type 6:  Place refers to Institution (in the place):

Washington (D.C.) petitions Beijing.

[Washington refers to U.S. government;  Beijing = Chinese government]

Houston defeats L.A.

[Houston refers to Houston Rockets;  L.A. refers to L.A. Lakers]

Metonymy Type 7:  Place refers to an Event (that occurred or occurs there):

Remember the Alamo!

[Alamo refers to the battle at Alamo, Texas, USA]

Pearl Harbor was a sad event in America's History.

[Pearl Harbor refers to the battle at Pear Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941]

Two More types of Metonymy *** (added: Feb. 19, 2004):

Metonymy Type 8:  Person in group refers to the whole group (similar to type 1)

Yao Ming defeated Shaquille O'Neal.

[Yao Ming refers to Houston Rockets;  Shaquille O'Neal refers to L.A. Lakers]

Metonymy Type 9:  Date refers to the event of that date (similar to type 7, but different)

Hopefully, 9/11 will never happen again. 

[9/11 refers to the destruction of the World Trade Center Towers in New York on that day: 9/11/2001]

[back to top]  [colorful metonymies]   [to Leon's Front Page]

More Lessons About Metaphors
by Leon of Leon's EFL Planet
©2008

　brought to you by...

IMPORTANT METAPHOR NOMENCLATURE:

First, I need to explain some metaphor nomenclature:

In a typical metaphor, Something (a) is Something (b).

Example:  Jennifer is a fox.   [ a = Jennifer, b = fox ].

Lakoff & Johnson, in their ground-breaking, and earth-shattering book, Metaphors We Live By, use the labels tenor for (a), and vehicle for (b).  Whether they invented the labels or someone else did, is unknown to this author (Leon).  In order for a metaphor to work, the tenor and the vehicle must have a common ground.  In this case, in American English, the generally accepted common ground is "beauty".  [Important Note:  In some countries, like Korea, the common ground for this metaphor would be "shrewdness".  For more information see my International Metaphors Page].

Now, you need to know that there are various kinds of metaphors.

IN TRUTH:

     ALL METAPHORS ARE 'NOMINATIVE METAPHORS', BUT SOME ARE HIDDEN.

nominative (noun) metaphor (classic metaphor)

          Example:  Joe is a horse.

TYPES OF 'HIDDEN' METAPHORS

causative (verb) metaphor

          Example:  Mary rides life bareback.

          HIDDEN METAPHOR:  Life is a horse.

adjective metaphor

          Example:  Jenny is foxy.

          HIDDEN METAPHOR:  Jenny is a fox.

metaphorical adage

          Example:  Don't count your chickens before they hatch.

          HIDDEN METAPHOR:  results are chickens

          Meaning of the metaphorical adage:  Don't count your results before they appear.

SO, THERE YOU HAVE IT!  YOU'VE GOT TO REMEMBER 3 PARTS OF A METAPHOR:

(1) tenor, (2) vehicle, (3) common ground;

AND YOU'VE GOT TO REMEMBER 4 KINDS OF METAPHORS:

(1) nominative, (2) causative, (3) adjective (4) adage

Also:  you need to know that metaphors can be taxonimized another way:

(1)  conventional metaphors:  metaphors commonly used
(2)  unconventional metaphors:  newly invented metaphors
(3)  extended metaphors:  a metaphor that is extended from a conventional metaphor
(4)  institutionalized metaphors:  metaphors that have become so common that they are seldom recognized as metaphors.

Sb = somebody
Sth = something

There are actually 2 metaphors (above):  bitter & sweet.  They are what I call "hidden" or "implicit" metaphors, because the tenors of the metaphors are not seen.  Only the vehicles of the metaphors are seen.

Metaphor #1:  life is bitter (sometimes).

Metaphor #2:  life is sweet (sometimes).

The tenor of each metaphor is life.

The vehicle in the first metaphor is bitter, while the vehicle in the second one is sweet.

All metaphors are used (as I explain below) to increase understanding via comparison.  Hence, there must be a common ground between the tenor and the vehicle.

In the first metaphor, we could say that the common ground is "unpleasant", as life can be unpleasant sometimes and the sensation of bitterness is unpleasant.

In the second metaphor, we could say that the common ground is "pleasant", as life can be pleasant sometimes and the sensation of sweetness is pleasant.

Thus, the meaning of the adage (above) is:  We must understand and accept that life is sometimes unpleasant, as well as pleasant.

(Sb) Be "out of one's mind".

Kind of Metaphor:  adjective metaphor (yes, "out of one's mind" is a prepositional phrase, but the phrase comes after the copula ("Be") making it function as a predicate adjective.

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  mind is a domain

Tenor:  mind

Vehicle:  domain

Common Ground:  both have limits

Meaning of the Metaphor:  (Sb) be crazy.

The customer is king.

Kind of Metaphor: classic nominative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor: n/a

Tenor: customer

Vehicle:  king

Common Ground:  both order others

Meaning of the Metaphor:  The customer is always right and can order the host(ess).

Actions speak louder than words.

Kind of Metaphor:  causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphors:  Actions are persons.  Words are persons.  {personification}

Tenor:  actions / words

Vehicle:  persons

Common Ground:  actions, words, and persons all communicate 

Meaning of the Metaphor:  Actions are more important than words.

Two heads are better than one. {proverbial metonymy}

Kind of Metaphor:  Actually it is NOT a metaphor; It is a metonymy.

Tenor:  (if metonymies had tenors, it would be:  "heads")

Vehicle:  (if metonymies had vehicles, it would be:  "people")

Common Ground:  There is no common ground in a metonymy.  The part refers to the whole in this kind of metonymy.  This particular kind of metonymy is also called 'synecdoche'.

Meaning of the Metonymy:  Two people are better than one.

To get under one's skin.

Kind of Metaphor:  adjective metaphor  (yes, I know;  "under one's skin" is a prepositional phrase, but the verb "get" here is functioning as a 'static' linking verb (like "be") and the phrase that follows is functioning as a predicate adjective.

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  skin is a protection of the mental

Tenor:  skin

Vehicle:  protection of the mental equilibrium

Common Ground:  both protect

Meaning of the Metaphor:  To become bothersome (to sb).

To get under one's skin means that sb has penetrated one's mental protection and has become bothersome.

(Sb) be a demi-god (demigoddess).

Kind of Metaphor:  classic nominative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  n/a

Tenor:  somebody

Vehicle:  demi-god(dess)

Common Ground:  both exhibit superhuman qualities (or seemingly superhuman qualities)

Meaning of the Metaphor:  Sb is superhuman.

Examples:

Michael Jackson is a demigod in the music world.

Demi More is a demigoddess on the screen.

(Sb) be a ten.

Kind of Metaphor:  classic nominative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor: n/a

Tenor:  somebody

Vehicle:  ten

Common Ground:  both are best  (10 is highest on the rating scale).

Meaning of the Metaphor:  To be a ten is essentially to be perfect.

Examples in Dialogue:

In the English-speaking communities, we tend to use a scale of 1 to 10 for rating things.  Therefore, to be a ten, means:  to be perfect.  Sample sentences:

1.  Dialogue:

A:  How is your new girlfriend?

B:  She's fine.

A:  No, I mean how IS she?

B:  Oh, she is a perfect ten!

A:  No kidding?

B:  Yeah.... great body, great personality, great sense of humor.

2.  Dialogue:

A:  How was the movie?

B:  It was a ten!  You should see it.

(Sb) be down or (Sb) feel down

Kind of Metaphor:  adjective metaphor / orientational metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  down is badness (orientational metaphor)

Tenor:  down

Vehicle:  badness

Common Ground:  not sure;  culturally we think of "down" as bad, "up" as good.  If I had to guess, I'd say it is because down is associated with low and low is associated with low scores, low ratings, low levels, all of which are generally considered bad.

Meaning of the Metaphor:  Sb feel(s) bad.

The circle of life

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  life is a circle

Tenor:  life

Vehicle: circle

Common Ground:  both life and a circle are like cycles

Meaning of the Metaphor:  life is a cycle

Explanation:

Metaphors with the word "Run":

1.  running water

2.  water runs down my chin.

Kind of Metaphor:  causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  water is a person (with legs that can run)

Tenor:  water

Vehicle: person

Common Ground:  both water and people travel

Meaning of the Metaphors:

1.  running water = traveling water

2.  water runs = water travels/moves

Another example:

3.  Do you have running water in your house?

NEXT...

running total

Kind of Metaphor:  present-participle-adjective metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  a total is a person (with legs that can run)

Tenor:  total

Vehicle: person

Common Ground:  both totals and people change

Meaning of the Metaphor:  a running total is a current total (not the final total)

(Sb) bear(s) one's cross

Pre-explanation:

Approximately 2000 years ago, when the man named Jeshua (Jesus) bar Joseph of Nazareth was to be crucified, he was forced to carry (bear) his own cross to his own crucifixion site.

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor, extended into a causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  a cross is a problem

Tenor:  cross

Vehicle: problem

Common Ground:  both a cross and a problem are hard to endure

Meaning of the Metaphor:  to bear one's (own) cross, means to endure one's (own) problem (usually a very serious problem)

Example:

having a monkey on one's back

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor, extended into a causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  a problem that just won't go away is a monkey on one's back

Tenor:  a problem that just won't go away

Vehicle: a monkey on one's back

Common Ground:  both a monkey on one's back and a problem that just won't go away are annoying

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor, extended into a causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  joy is blue skies / melancholy is gray skies

Tenor:  joy / melancholy

Vehicle: blue skies / gray skies

Common Ground:  blue skies denotes sunny skies and the sun is associated with positive feelings, while gray skies denote rain-cloud-induced darkness and both rain and darkness are associated with negative feelings.

Examples:

There are only blue skies in their life right now, because they just got married, but it is only a matter of time before the gray skies come.

A stitch in time saves nine

Kind of Metaphor:  NOT A METAPHOR; It is a METONYMOUS ADAGE

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  a stitch represents all kinds of materials used for repairs

Tenor:  a single stitch

Vehicle:  all materials for repairing things

Common Ground:  n/a

Meaning of the Metaphor:  If repairs are effected in a timely manner, one actually saves (conserves) materials.

bridge over troubled water = solution to a problem

let's cross that bridge when we come to it = let's deal with that problem when is arises.

it's water under the bridge = it's history

bridge (v.) = make a connection

family tree = one's genealogy and relatives

He has deep roots here.  (roots = ancestors)

A man with no roots, is not a man for me.  (roots = prominent ancestors)

a branch of sth  = a part / section of sth

The ramifications of sth (rama = branch in latin) = the aspects of sth abstract

EXTENDED METAPHOR:  lemon tree is sadness.  (extended from lemon is sadness)

Adage:  When life hands you a lemon, make lemonade.

The fountain of youth.  (tonic of rejuvenation and eternal youth)

An ocean of ideas.  (many ideas)

He is a river of ideas.  (his ideas just keep coming)

Examples:

raw facts

half-baked ideas

warmed-over theories

That's a fishy story.

It's food for thought.

Let's let that idea percolate for a while.

Let's let that idea simmer on the back burner for a while.

That idea has been fermenting for year.

This is the meaty part of the paper.

Examples:

That information is hard to swallow.

I couldn't quite digest your lecture.

All that heard the choir were edified.

I'm still chewing on your words from last night.

You are full of shit!  (caution:  VERY VULGAR!)

That's bull shit!  (caution:  VERY VULGAR!)

I regurgitated everything that I learned for the test.

Don't make me throw up.

It's food for thought.

He has a voracious appetite for science fiction.

Some teachers spoon-feed their students.

I devoured that book.

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor, extended into a causative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  positive mental perspective = rose-colored glasses

Tenor:  positive mental perspective

Vehicle:  rose-colored glasses

Common Ground:  both a positive mental perspective and roses are considered to be GOOD

Meaning of the Metaphor:  see explanation below

Explanation:

The metaphor means that the person wearing the rose-colored glasses perceives the world to be a wonderful place.  That's why we say, "rose-colored."  Yet the fact that the person is wearing lenses means that the person's perception is not 100% realistic.  In fact, the person is usually blind to the bad things in the world.  Why?  Because that person's life is quite good at that time.

He sees the world through rose-colored glasses.

{  => He has a good out-look on life. }

I made my own metaphor in contrast to the one above as a kind of extended metaphor.

"see the world through lilac-colored glasses"

Lilacs are flowers, which are of a blue-violet color.  It employs another metaphor is English:  I am blue, which means:  I am sad and/or depressed.

  Please see my poem:  Lilac-colored glasses.

Learn more about EXTENDED METAPHORS

Examples:

I love you with all my heart.

I thank you from the bottom of my heart.  (I deeply thank you, with all the contents of my heart).

You broke my heart.  (You broke the container of my good emotions and all the contents have spilled out.)

You are a heartless jerk! (insult; "jerk" is slang, check out the slang page)

Eat your heart out!  (You may be envious.)

Have a heart, please.  (Please be generous/merciful.)

I gave you my heart.  (I gave you my love.)

Lionhearted (a.) = very generous/merciful

Examples:

He is the head of this department.

The headlines are at the top of the article.

She is the head coach of the basketball team.

The captain is the head of the ship.

The capital is the head city of a country.

George W. Bush is the head of state.

Kind of Metaphor:  nominative metaphor

Hidden 'nominative' Metaphor:  total delegated authority is carte blanche

Tenor:  total delegated authority

Vehicle: carte blanche

Common Ground:  both 

Meaning of the Metaphor:  see explanation below

Explanation:

A long time ago in France (and maybe England), if a rich man or a nobleman gave you a blank card (blank check) you were able to fill it in with whatever amount you wanted/needed and use the funds for whatever purpose previously agreed to 

SAMPLE SENTENCE:  He was given carte blanche to run the company.

We have another expression in English which is very similar:

One can write his/her own ticket. 

Examples:

Get out.  (You must be wrong... I don't believe you.)

You are in.  (You are popular.)

You are way off base.  (You are very wrong.)

You are right on!  (You are exactly correct.)

You hit the nail on the head.  (You are exactly correct.)

He is off his rocker.  (He is crazy.)

He is out of his mind.  (He is crazy.)

She is in tune with life.  (She is astute/sensitive to life.)

She is right on track.  (She is going in the right direction.)

She is off track.  (She is going in the wrong direction.)

Her argument has been derailed.  (Her argument has been proven wrong.)

I'm in the groove.  (I'm in a good mood, because my situation is good.)

He is out in left field.  (He is out of the right, and in the wrong.)

The  price is in the ballpark of my price range.  [near, almost right]

***He's in the doghouse.  ***(He has done something wrong and his wife/girlfriend is punishing him.)  This seems contrary to the metaphor (above), but it is not, because "in the doghouse" means "outside the house."

He is out to lunch.  (He is temporarily insane.)

Examples:

Look at my life!  So far so good.

On the road of life, there are many crossroads.

I took the path less traveled by, and that has made all the difference.  (Frost)

Your journey through life will be much easier if you heed the road signs.

Put yourself in my shoes!

Life is a roller coaster ride.

I wanna go back home.  (I want to die.)

Stop and smell the roses.  (Stop working and enjoy life from time to time.)

We're at the end of the line.  (We will die soon.)

We're lying (knocking) at death's door.  (We will die soon.)

See you on the other side.  (Life's journey doesn't end at death...)

When life bucks you off, you should get back on.

Take the reins of fate.  (Take control of your life.)

If you don't ride life, she will ride you.  (same as above)

Examples:

Our relationship....so far so good.

Our relationship is a dead-end street.

Our relationship has been a long, bumpy road.

Our marriage is on the rocks.  (sea voyage)

Our love has gone off the tracks.  (train trip)

In our relationship, we are just spinning our wheels.  (car trip)

We are past the point of no return.

There's no turning back now.

I don't think this relationship is going anywhere.

We're at a crossroads.

Look how far we've come, baby.

Examples:

She captured my heart.

You stole my heart.

He broke my heart.

You hurt me.

There is a fortress around your heart. (Sting)

You broke down my defenses.

I'm a prisoner of your love.

Let me go! i.e., Release me, and let me love again.  (Elvis Presley)

What's your strategy to make her love you?

She shot me down.

I'll take a shot at love.

I surrendered my heart to her.

Examples:

You win some and you lose some.

     (meaning:  sometimes you have success in life, and sometimes you don't.)

There are two kinds of people in this world:  winners and losers.

     (meaning:  There are successful people and unsuccessful people.)

Three strikes and you're out!

     (meaning:  You only get three chances in life.)

It's not whether you win or lose that matters, it's how you play the game.

     (meaning:  Living honestly (no cheating) is the best way to live.)

Don't run faster than you have strength.

     (meaning:  Don't try to do more than you can do.)

In the game of life, there's no reset button.

     (meaning:  You only live once, so make the best of it.)

Game over.

     (meaning:  death.)

Examples:

How do you spend your time?

My time is valuable.

Don't waist my time.

If you give me some of your time, I'll pay you back with some of my time.

The criminal spent twenty years in jail.  He paid his debt to society.

What are institutionalized metaphors?

They are metaphors that have become so commonly used that the actual, literal meaning has become lost over time, and only the figurative meaning is commonly known.

One example of